Fergelijkende taalkunde fan Afrikaans en Engels. Comparative Grammar of English and Cape Dutch

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II. O'er di Naamwoorde.
II. Nouns.

1. Elke ding het syn naam, en di woord wat dit uitdruk is di naamwoord. Di ding wat ek me skrywe heet pen; daarom is pen 'n naamwoord.	1. Everything has its name, and the word used as the name of anything is called noun (Latin nomen, name). I write with a thing called pen, therefore the word pen is a noun.
Oefening: - Soek uit al di naamwoorde in di follende folsinne: - 'n Kerk is 'n gebou. Di pen is skerp. Di ink is swart. In di skool en in di kerk staan banke.	Exercise: - Select the nouns from the following sentences: - A church is a building. The pen is sharp. The ink is black. In the school and in the church are benches.
2. Daar is 2 soorte fan naamwoorde:-	2. There are 2 classes of nouns:-
a. algemene, of soortname, soos mens, huis, boom, dorp, berg, kar, ens.	a. Common Nouns, being the names of a whole class of things, as man, house, tree, village, mountain, cart, etc.
b bisondere, of ygename, soos Piet, Kaap, Kaffer, Maandag, ens.	b. Proper Nouns, used as the name of some particular person, animal, place or thing, as Peter, Cape, Kaffir, Monday, etc.
Oefening: - Wys an di follende folsinne watter woorde soortname en watter yge-name is: - Willem het Paarl toe gery. Toen hy in di dorp kom ontmoet hy fer Piet daar. Hulle het toen same by oom Isak gaan kuier. Daar het hulle baing frugte gekry, soos druiwe, pere, appels, ens.	Exercise: - Point out in the following sentences which words are common and which are proper nouns: - William rode to the Paarl. When he came in the village he met Peter there. Both then visited uncle Isaac. There they got lots of fruit, such as grapes, pears, apples, etc.
Anmerking. - In Engels praat hulle oek nog fan afgetrokke en saamgestelde naamwoorde, mar dit kom net so goed onder di eerste klas (a).	Note. - Some English grammars also distinguish abstract and collective nouns as separate classes, but they may also be classified under common nouns (a).
3. Di naamwoorde het 3 geslagte:-	3. Nouns have got 3 genders:-
a. mannelik, as dit iits manneliks andui, soos man, fader, seun;	a. masculine, when the name of anything of the male sex, as man, father, son;
b. frouelik, as dit iits froueliks meen soos frou, moeder, dogter;	b. feminine, when the name of anything of the female sex, as wife, mother daughter;
c. onsydig, as dit ni mannelik of frouelik is ni, socs huis, pêrd, wa.	c. neuter, when the name of anything of neither sex, as house, horse, wagon.
Oefening: - Wys an in di follende sinne watter naamwoorde mannelik, watter frouelik, en watter onsydig is: - Myn fader het 9 kinders, 4 seuns en 5 dogters. Myn oom het 6 broers en 9 susters; hulle kinders is myn neefs en niggiis. In ons tuin staan baing bome en hulle dra lekkere frugte.	Exercise: - Pount out in the following sentences which nouns are masculine, which feminine and which neuter: - My father has got 9 children, 4 sons and 5 daughters. My uncle has got 6 brothers and 9 sisters; their children are my nephews and nieces. In our garden grow many trees and they bear delicious fruit.
Anmerking. - In Hollans is di geslagte willekeurig en baing moeilik, fer 'n Afrikaner en Engelsman onleerbaar; mar in Afrikaans en Engels is dit maklik en omtrent eenders.	Note. - In Dutch the distinction of genders is arbitrary and very intricate, unlearnable to an Africander as well as to an Englishman; but in English and Cape Dutch it is very similar and easily learnt.

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4. Di onderskyding fan geslagte fan léwendige dinge word op 3 manire gemaak, in Afrikaans en Engels alby:-	4. The distinction of sex in living beings is marked in 3 ways, both in English and Cape Dutch:-
Eerste Maniir: - Deur an di mannelike woord 'n frouelike uitgang te gé, soos koning is mannelik, koningin frouelik; priister mannelik, priisteres frouelik.	First Mode: - The masculine and feminine are formed by different suffixes, as murderer, murderess, or the feminine is formed by adding certain suffixes to the masculine. The commonest of these, and the only one by which fresh feminines can still be formed, is ess, as count, countess.
Anmerking. - Mar dis mar enkele uitsonderinge, fan min gebruikelike woorde wat di Afrikaner nog ni in syn yge taal bewerk het ni, mar wat hy met geslagsonderskyding en al uit Hollans o'erneem. Di Afrikaner het 'n afkeer van ferbuiginge an syn woorde; dis fer hom te lastig. Di Engelse het dit tot 'n sekere hoogte oek, daarom dat in hulle taal di soort fan onderskyding oek ni sofeul is ni as byf. in Hollans. Hulle gewone frouelike uitgang is ess, soos count, countess; mar hiirop is alweer 'n menigte uitsonderinge, wat ons onmolik ni almal kan anwys ni.	Note. - There are, however, many deviations from and exceptions to this rule in English, which we cannot give in detail. In Cape Dutch this is more an exception than a rule, the Africander being averse to suffixes. We find it merely, as a remnant of the Dutch Grammar, in a few words as koning, koningin; priister, priisteres.
Twede Maniir; - Sommige woorde staan fer alby geslagte, as sodanig word dit dan mannelik gebruik, omdat di mannelike geslag o'erheersend is. Mar as 'n mens di geslagte wil onderskye, dan doen jy dit deur aparte woorde in di plek daarfan te set. Dis feul in gebruik in Engels sowel as in Afrikaans. Ons gé fan alby 'n lysi, eers fan di gemene geslagswoord (waar dit bestaan) en dan fan di mannelike en frouelike onderskyding:- Egpare - man, frou Ouers - fader, moeder. Ouers - papa, mamma. Kinders - broer, suster. Kinders - seun, dogter. Kinders - jongetji, mysi. Neef, niggi. Oom, tante. Pêrde - hengs (reun), merri. Varkens - beer (burg), sog. Beeste - bul (os), koei. Hoenders - haan, hen. Honde - teef, reun. Bok - ram (kapater), ooi,	Second Mode: - Quite different words are used, as:- Bachelor, maid (spinster). Boar, sow. Boy, girl. Brother, sister. Buck, doe. Bull, cow. Bullock, heifer. Cock, hen. Colt, filly. Dog, bitch. Drake, duck. Drone, bee. Earl, countess. Father, mother. Gander, goose. Gentleman, lady. Hart, roe. Husband, wife. King, queen. Lord, lady. Man, woman. Milter, spawner. Monk, nun. Nephew, niece, Papa, mamma. Ram, ewe. Sir, madam. Sire, dame. Sloven, slut. Son, daughter. Stag, hind. Stallion, mare. Uncle, aunt. Wizard, witch.
Derde Maniir: - Deur mannelike en frouelike naamwoorde in Afrikaans foor of agteran di gemeenslagtige woord te set; in Engels	Third Mode: - Masculine and feminine nouns or pronouns are prefixed or affixed to nouns of common gender, as:-

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deur naamwoorde en soms oek deur foornaamwoorde. Hiir folg weer 'n lysi:-
Mens - mansmens, froumens Jongmens - jonkman, jongnôi. Kaptyn - mankaptyn, mydkaptyn, Towenaar, towersheks. Skaap - skaapram, skaapooi. Bok - bokram, bokooi. Kalf - bulkalf, fêrskalf. Ful - hengsful, merriful. Eend - mannetjieend, wyfieend. Gans - mannetjigans, wyfigans.	Man-servant, Man-singer, He-devil, Boar-pig. Buck-rabbit, Bull-calf, Cock-sparrow, Dog-fox, He-goat, Pea cock, Guinea-cock, Turkey-cock,	maid-servant. woman-singer. she-devil. sow-pig. doe-rabbit. cow-calf. hen-sparrow. bitch-fox. she-goat. pea-hen. guinea-hen. turkey-hen.
5 Di naamwoorde het 2 getalle, enkelfoud, as 'n mens een ding bedoel, soos kalbas, komkommer, ens., en meerfoud, as jy meer as een ding meen, soos koejawels, lukwarte, ens., Woorde soos koring, gars, hawer, botter, peper, sout, koffi, té, rys, lug, ens., is altyd enkelfoudig, in Afrikaans en Engels alby.	5. Nouns have got 2 numbers, singular, when we speak of one thing, for which the noun stands, as calabas, cucumber, etc., and plural, when we speak of more than one of the things for which the noun stands, as guavas, loquats, etc. Words such as corn (wheat), barley, rye, butter, pepper, coffee, tea, rice, air, etc,, are always used in singular both in English and Cape Dutch.
6. Di meerfoud word gemaak fan di enkelfoud in Afrikaans deur e of s agteran te las, soos mens, mense; man, mans, ens.; en in Engels deur s en es agteran te las, soos book, books; box, boxes, ens.	6. The plural is formed from the singular by adding, in Cape Dutch e or s, as mens, mense; man, mans, etc.; and in English by adding s and es, as book, books; box, boxes, etc.
Oefening: - Skrywe di meerfoud fan di follende woorde in Afrikaans: - pêrd, boom, weg, straat, huis, emmer, gèwel; en in Engels: gas, tree, church, cow, potato.	Exercise: - Write the plural of the following words in Cape Dutch: - perd, boom, weg, straat, huis, emmer, géwel; and in English of: - gas, tree, church, cow, potato.
7. Afrikaans is buitegewoon reelmatig in di forming fan di meerfoud. Tog moet di follende punte in anmerking geneem worde:-	7. Cape Dutch is exceptionally regular in the formation of the plural, still the following irregularities should be noted:
a Fer di welluidendhyd word di medeklinker an di end fan di woord meesal ferdubbel foor di e, dis feral so met k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, byf. juk, jukke; pil, pille; kam, kamme; kan, kanne; strop, stroppe; kar karre; mes, messe; pot, potte; ens.	a. For the sake of euphony consonants at the end of nouns are mostly doubled before the e of the plural; this is especially the case with k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t. (For examples see parallel column.)
b. Di f word foor di e meesal fersag in w, (nes in Engels in v) soos hof, howe; graf, grawe; ens.	b. The f before the e forming the plural is usually softened into w, (like English into v) as: hof, howe, etc.
c. Enkele woorde neem ers in plaas fan s agteran, soos kind, kinders; kalf, kalwers; lam, lammers; ens.	c. To some singular nouns ers is suffixed instead of s, as: kalf, kalwers, etc.

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d. Enkele male word di d ferander in j, soos pad, paje; blad, blaje; ens.				d. In a few cases the terminating d of the singular is changed into j for euphony, as: pad, paje, etc.
Oefening: - Skrywe di meerfoud fan: os, fles, pik, wiil, dop, dam, pen, spar, kat, kloof.				Exercise: - Write the plural of words given under Cape Dutch exercise.
Anmerking. - Afrikaans is feel reelmatiger in di forming fan di meerfoud as Hollans. Dit blyk o.a. daaruit dat waar di enkelfoud in Hollans deur gebruik onreelmatig geworde was Afrikaans dit weer reelmatig gemaak het soos blyk uit di follende foorbeelde:				Note. - The formation of plurals is more regular in Cape Dutch than in Dutch, as appears i.a. in cases where in Dutch the singular became irregular in usage and Cape Dutch retained or restituted the regular form, as appears from instances given in the parallel column.
Hollans.		Afrikaans.
Enk.	Meerf.	Enk.	Meerf.
Koe	Koeien	Koei	Koeie
Vloo	Vlooien	Flooi	Flooie
Ei	Eieren	Y'er	Y'ers
8. In Engels is di uitsonderinge meer soos:-				8. In English there are more exceptions than in Cape Dutch, as
a. Di y word agter 'n medeklinker ferander in ies, soos lady, ladies; agter 'n klinker blyf dit y soos boy, boys.				a. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change the y into ies, as lady, ladies; preceded by a vowel, the y remains, boy, boys.
b. Di f of fe word meesal ves, soos leaf, leaves; soms blyf dit f, chief, chiefs.				b. Most nouns in f or fe form their plural in ves, as calf, calves; knife, knives. Some few nouns simply add s to the singular, as chief, chiefs.
c. Enkele naamwoorde fan Saxise afkoms form di meerfoud deur di klank fan di enkelfoud te ferander, soos man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice; louse, lice; hiirby behoor oek 3 woorde wat di meerfoud form met toefoeging fan en, dis ox, oxen; child, children; brother, brethren.				c. A few nouns of Saxon origin form their plural by changing the vowel sound of the singular; these are man, men; woman, women; foot feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice; louse, lice. Three nouns of the same origin form their plurals in en, as ox, oxen; child, children; brother, brethren.
d. Enige woorde het di meerfoud nes di enkelfoud, soos sheep, deer.				d. Some few words have their plurals the same as the singular, as sheep, deer.
e. Omdat Engels sofeul woorde het uit freemde tale, daarom word in fele gefalle di meerfoud fan di woorde geform soos in di tale, byf.:				e. Foreign nouns, adopted in English, generally retain their plural endings as in the language whence they are derived:-
1) uit Latyn,				1) Latin nouns
woorde in a meerfoud ae, soos nebula, nebulae; woorde in us meerfoud i, soos focus, foci; woorde in um meerfoud a, soos datum, data; woorde in ex meerfoud wes, soos vortex, vortices;				in a form the plural in ae, as nebula, nebulae, in us form the plural in i, as focus, foci; in um form the plural in a, as datum, data; in ex form the plural in ices, as vortex, vortices;

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woorde in us (onsydig) meerfoud era, soos genus, genera;	in us (neuter) form the plural in era, as genus, genera;
2) uit Griiks,	2) Greek nouns
woorde in is, meerfoud es, soos crisis, crises; woorde in on, meerfoud a, soos phenomenon, phenomena;	in is form the plural in es, as crisis, crises; in on form the plural in a, as phenomenon, phenomena;
3) uit Frans, eau word eaux, soos beau, beaux;	3) French nouns in eau plural eaux, as beau, beaux.
4) uit Italiaans, e en o word i soos dilettante, dilettanti; virtuoso, virtuosi;	4) Italian nouns in e and o plural i, as dilettante, dilettanti; virtuoso, virtuosi.
5) uit Hebreeus, meerfoud im, soos cherub, cherubim; seraph, seraphim.	5) Hebrew nouns plural im, as cherub, cherubim; seraph, seraphim.
Oefening: - Skrywe meerfoud fan woorde onder Engelse oefening angegé.	Exercise: - Write out the plurals of the following words: - Ox, tooth, foot, child, man, penny, hero, lady, calf, box, phenomenon, datum, loaf, genus, analysis, appendix, cherub, beau, focus, beauty, mouse, wife, country, leaf, brother, woman, self, kiss, fox, life, chief, eye, gipsy, medium, sheep, fairy, donkey.
9. Afrikaans en Engels gebruik gen naamfalle by di naamwoorde ni; di betrekking waarin 'n naamwoord staan word angewys met foorsetsels. Daarin kom hulle, onder andere, o'ereen met Frans onder di nuwe taal.	9. In English and Cape Dutch we have in reality no cases or declensions, showing the various relations which nouns have to other words in the sentences in which they are employed, this is expressed by prepositions. In this respect they agree i.a. with French amongst modern languages.
Anmerking. - a. In di meeste oue tale het hulle werkelik naamfalle gehad, sodat di naamwoorde in elke naamfal 'n andere uitgang of ferbuiging gehad het. So had Latyn 6 naamfalle en in amper elke naamfal is di laaste letters fan di woord anders, befoorbeeld:-	Note. - a. In most ancient languages the nouns themselves were declined to express these relations, so that in each case the noun had a different termination. Thus they had 6 cases in Latin and in nearly every case the last letters of the nouns were different. (See example parallel column).
Eerste naamfal: equus, 'n pêrd - a horse. Twede naamfal: equi, fan 'n pêrd - of a horse. Derde naamfal: equo, an 'n pêrd - to a horse. Fiirde naamfal: equum, fer 'n pêrd - a horse. Fyfde naamfal: eque, o pêrd! - o horse! Sesde naamfal: equo, op 'n pêrd - on a horse.
Hiiruit siin ons duidelik dat di Latynse woord equus in elke naamfal 'n andere uitgang het, mar ons woord blyf mar altyd pêrd en di Engelse horse.
b. In di nuwe tale, feral di Germaanse, slyt di feranderde uitgange al meer en meer af, soos o.a. angetoon is deur Max Muller. Nou gebruik hulle wel nog konsuis di naamfalle en noem dit ferbuigings, omdat hulle taalkunde na di Latynse gemaak is. Mar dis amper heeltemal al 'n lege en onnodige form. Want hulle ferbuig tog ni di naamwoorde self ni, mar set meesal net di foor-	b. In modern languages, especially in the Germanic, the declensions became gradually more obsolete, as shown i.a. by Max Muller. In most grammars they still retain the cases and call them declensions, because their grammars are framed after the model of Latin. But this has largely become an empty and useless form. For they do not actually decline the nouns, but express the

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setsels foor di woorde. Op di maniir kan hulle wel honderd naamfalle maak, deur mar elke maal 'n andere foorsetsel foor di naamwoord te set. Daarom laat ons di gekhyd mar heeltemal bly.	relations of nouns by prepositions, and in this way they can form as many cases as they have got prepositions. For this reason we simply do away with that frivolity.
c. Di enigste wat nog na iits daarfan lyk is di s in di twede naamfal fan Afrikaans en Engels Mar in Afrikaans kom dit net foor by samegestelde woorde, soos fredesferdrag; en in Engels word di s met 'n komma afgesky fan di naamwoord, soos John's book. Mar dis tog ygenlik oek gen ferbuiging fan di naamwoord self ni. Hiirin kom Afrikaans en Engels o'ereen met Hebreeus, wat oek net fer di twede naamfal 'n sametrekking fan di twé naamwoorde het wat in betrekking tot makaar staan as besitter en besitting.	c. The only remnant is the s in the possessive case of English and Cape Dutch. But in the latter this is only the case in compound words, such as ‘fredesferdrag,’ and in English the s is separated from the noun by an apostrophe ('); so that in reality it is no declension of the noun. And in this respect English and Cape Dutch agree with Hebrew, where in like manner also the possessive case is the only vestige of declension
d. Bowediin het Afrikaans nog di o'ereen koms, met Hebreeus dat dit 'n foorsetsel het om an te toon di foorwerp waarop di werking fan 'n o'ergaande werkwoord o'ergaan, iits wat in Hollans en Engels en di meeste nuwe tale ni kan uitgedruk worde ni, waarfan ons hiir tot foorbeeld gé Gen. 4:1:-	d Besides this Cape Dutch is similar to Hebrew in another respect, as both express the relation between a transitive verb and the objective noun by a particular preposition, for which we find no equivalent in either English or Dutch, (See illustration below.)
Hebreeus: Ve ha adam jada eth Hawa va teled   eth Kajin, Afrikaans: En di mens beken fer Eva en sy baar fer Kaïn. Engels: And the man knew - Eve and she bare - Cain. Hollans: En de mensch bekende - Eva en zij baarde - Kaïn.
e. In Engels word di s partykeer weggelaat by di sogenoemde twede naamfal en net di komma' gehou om dit an te wys. Dis di gefal:-	e. In English the s of the possessive case is sometimes omitted and only the apostrophe comma (') retained as a mark of the genitive. This is the case:-
1) By di meerfoud, as dit reeds op s uitgaan, soos the cat's tail is ‘di kat syn stêrt;’ mar the cats' tail is ‘di katte hulle stêrt.’	1) When the plural terminates in s, e.g, the cats' tails;
2) Waar di enkelfoud yndig op es, as 'n aparte lettergreep, soos Socrates' wife.	2) when the singular terminates in es as a separate syllable, e.g. Socrates wife.
3) Waar woorde reeds op ss, x, us, en ce, yndig, om ni te feul di sis-klank te gebruik ni, soos for goodness' sake.	3) When nouns terminate already in ss, x, us and ce, to avoid too much of the hissing sound, e g. for goodness, sake.
Oefening: - Skrywe uit di twede naamfal enkelfoud, en waar dit kan wees, oek meerfoud, fan di woorde wat in di Engelse ‘Exercise’ gegé word.	Exercise: - Write down the possessive case singular, and, where they admit of it, the possessive case plural, of the following nouns: - mother, eagle, man, girl, boy, poet, John, righteousness, woman, Xerxes, drum, sheep, sister, cat, Moses, sun, sea, shell, Aristides, rose, people, Roberts, bee, caterpillar, river, tree, child.
10. Op laas moet ons by di naamwoorde nog spreek, dat 'n mens in Afrikaans (ni in Engels ni) di meeste daarfan kan ferklynwoordtjiis maak as jy 'n klyne dingetji bedoel. Dit doen ons deur i agteran di naamwoorde te las, in enkelfould, en iis in meerfoud, soos knaap word knapi,	10. In conclusion we must remark that in Cape Dutch (not so in English) of most nouns the diminutives can be used when anything small is meant. This is done by adding an i to the nouns in singular, and iis in plural, e.g. knaap, knapi,

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knapiis, ens. Hierby moet di follende reels in di oog gehou worde:-	knapiis, &c. The following rules must be observed:-
a. As 'n naamwoord yndig op m, dam gebruik ons pi, soos boom word boompi, boompiis, ens.	a. When a noun terminates in m, then pi is added in singular and piis in plural, e.g. boom, boompi, boompiis.
b. As di naamwoord yndig op f, g, k, p, en s, dan word di medeklinker meesal ferdubbel, soos draf word draffi, frag word fraggi, pak word pakki, kop word koppi, kas word kassi.	b. In nouns terminating in f, g, k, p, and s the terminating consonants are doubled, e.g. draf, draffi; frag, fraggi; pak, pakki; kop, koppi; kas, kassi.
c. As di naamwoorde yndig op d, l, m, n, r, t, en op klinkers, dan foeg ons, behalwe ferdubbeling fan di letters, daaragter tji of etji, soos bad word badtji, fal word falletji; lam word lammetji; kan word kannetji; kar word karretji; lat word lattji; papa word papatji; fé word fétji; flooi word flooitji; Kato word Katotji; frou word froutji; sy word sytji. Op enkele plekke word tji meer uitgespreek as ki, soos frouki, biki, ens.	c. To nouns terminating in d, l, m, n, r, t, and in vowels, is added tji or etji, e.g. bad, badtji; fal, falletji; lam, lammetji; kar, karretji; lat, lattji; papa, papatji; fé, fétji; Kato, Katotji; frou, froutji; sy, sytji. In some parts of the country instead of tji is used ki, e.g. frou, frouki, &c.
d. Di ferklyn - woordtjis word buitengewoon feul gebruik in Afrikaans, denkelik uit 'n owerdrewe beskydenhyd, waardeur di Afrikaner sig self en syn goed gering ag. So praat hy fan syn huisi, en syn bitji goedtjiis, en syn fétjiis, en fan syn froutji, en fan syn kindertjiis; hy moet 'n bitji tyd hê, fer 'n klyne werki, ens. Dikwils diin di ferklynwoordtjiis om 'n soort fan liifkosing uit te druk, soos patji en matji, oompi en tanni, nefi en niggi, boeti en sussi, skapi en lammetji, ens.	d. In Cape Dutch diminutives are exceptionally much used, which is probably to be ascribed to an extreme sense of modesty, through which the Africander is apt to consider himself and his property as small and insignificant. Thus he speaks of his huisi (little house), and his bitji goedtjiis (few little possessions), and his fétjiis (his small live stock), and his froutji (little wife), and his kindertjiis (little ones); he begs for a bitji (small bit) of time, for a klyn werki (a little piece of work). Sometimes diminutives are used as terms of endearment, as patji and matji (sweet little papa and mama), skapi and bokki (dear little sheep and goat), &c.
Oefening: - Swrywe di follende woorde uit as ferklynwoordtjiis: pad, straf, frug, bak, kam, man, dop, spar, os, pot, tou, mamma, tré, sooi, karo, ou, sny.	Exercise: - Write out the diminutive, of the nouns given on the parallel columns