Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden. Deel 92
(1977)– [tijdschrift] Bijdragen en Mededeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap– Auteursrechtelijk beschermd
[pagina 394]
| |
Amerikaanse ooggetuigen over het revolutiejaar 1848 in Nederland
| |
[pagina 395]
| |
enigde Staten. De monarchale regeringsvorm in Nederland werd nog gekenmerkt door aristocratie en centralisme, toen de republiek aan de overzijde van de oceaan allemanskiesrecht en democratisch zelfbestuur al tot haar verworvenheden rekende. Door radicale democraten in Europa en door Amerikanen zelf werd dit experiment in burgerlijk zelfbestuur als lichtend voorbeeld beschouwdGa naar voetnoot4.. In de eerste helft van de negentiende eeuw waren er dus contrasten te over tussen de Nederlandse en Amerikaanse samenleving. Sociaal traditionalisme en economische stagnatie in Nederland contrasteerden sterk met de Amerikaanse sociale bewegelijkheid en economische dynamiek. Ondanks de feitelijke contrasten bleef er altijd een gevoel van verwantschap bestaan. Beide landen waren uit revolutie voortgekomen en hadden een protestants stempel. In het historisch bewustzijn van negentiende-eeuwse Amerikanen duikt dit gevoel van verwantschap keer op keer op; Motley's geschriften zijn er de bekendste uiting van. Amerikanen van oud-Nederlandse stam begonnen een eer te stellen in hun afkomst, die hun een aristocratisch aureool verschafte, want hoe langer de familie in Amerika was des te aanzienlijker. Dit was natuurlijk niet de enige reden van de hernieuwde interesse in de eigen achtergrond: confrontatie met de toenemende landverhuizing stimuleerde zowel etnische als historische bewustwordingGa naar voetnoot5.. Amerikanen voelden wel een zekere affiniteit tot Nederland, maar bewaarden meestal toch ook een kritische afstand. Dit was in ieder geval zo met de briefschrijvers, die we hier ten tonele zullen voeren. De Amerikaanse zaakgelastigde te Den Haag en de consul te Amsterdam schreven buitengewoon uitvoerige en boeiende brieven over gebeurtenissen en achtergronden in Nederland. Zij hielden er uitgesproken meningen op na. Ook naar aanleiding van de grondwetswijziging van 1848 staken zij hun mening niet onder stoelen of banken. Hun beschrijvingen en analyses zijn zeker de moeite waard om gelezen te worden. Men kan er de toenmalige Nederlandse verhoudingen uit leren kennen, maar ook de Amerikaanse mentaliteit. Als bron ter bestudering van diplomatieke en vooral handelspolitieke betrekkingen is deze correspondentie wel geraadpleegdGa naar voetnoot6.. Toch biedt ze ook veel aanknopingspunten wanneer men de economische, de sociaal-culturele en de mentaliteitsgeschiedenis van Nederland en de Verenigde Staten wil bestuderen. De scribenten waren immers geschoolde waarnemers. Beroepshalve moesten zij hun regeringen zo goed mogelijk voorlichten. Als buitenstaanders met een internationaal blikveld waren zij geneigd de contrasten duidelijk aan te geven en de nationale eigenaardigheden naar voren te halen. Cosmopolitisch was de achtergrond van de Amerikaanse zaakgelastigde te Den Haag, Auguste Geneviève Valentin D'Avezac (1780-1851), die zijn brieven meestal | |
[pagina 396]
| |
kortweg ondertekende met A(uguste) Davezac. Geboren op Santo Domingo uit een Franse plantersfamilie ontving hij zijn middelbare schoolopleiding in Frankrijk. Van hier keerde hij terug naar New Orleans om zich bij zijn familie te voegen, die wegens een opstand op Santo Domingo in 1791 naar Amerika was uitgeweken. In New Orleans maakte hij spoedig naam als advocaat. Tijdens de zogenaamde tweede onafhankelijkheidsoorlog tegen Groot-Brittannië (1812-1814) won hij het vertrouwen van generaal Andrew Jackson, die met zijn curieuze overwinning bij New Orleans - nota bene nadat de vrede in Gent reeds gesloten was - nationale faam verwierf. Toen ‘Old Hickory’ als kampioen van de gewone man in 1829 zijn intrek in het Witte Huis nam, maakte hij ruimschoots gebruik van zijn recht om ambten te vergeven (het later zo beruchte ‘spoils system’). Zijn vertrouweling uit New Orleans benoemde hij tot legatiesecretaris in Den Haag. In 1831 gepromoveerd tot zaakgelastigde bleef Davezac tot 1839, toen het getij voor de democraten keerde, op zijn post. Terug in Amerika vestigde hij zich te New York, waar hij zich uiteraard aan democratische zijde in de politieke arena stortte. President James K. Polk beloonde zijn ijver door hem in 1845 als zaakgelastigde naar Nederland te zenden. Spoedig na zijn ontslag uit diplomatieke dienst in 1850 stierf hij te New YorkGa naar voetnoot7.. Van de andere briefschrijver Charles Nichols, die van 28 december 1842 tot 28 november 1849 Amerikaans consul te Amsterdam was, is mij niet meer bekend dan uit zijn brieven naar voren komt. Zijn verslagen doen hem kennen als een overijverig correspondent van de Secretary of State James Buchanan. Herhaaldelijk drong Nichols aan op verhoging van zijn financiële toelage. Soms moest hij wegens eigenzinnig gedrag tot de orde geroepen worden door de zaakgelastigde. Meer dan Davezac was hij geneigd tot retorische overdrijving en overhaaste conclusies. In zijn brieven klinkt de lofzang op Amerika het luidst. Misschien aasde hij ook wel op promotie. Davezac had een goede kijk op de politieke en sociale verhoudingen. Bij Nichols komen de economische verhoudingen beter uit de verf. Zijn interpretatie van de politieke ontwikkelingen slaat de plank nog wel eens mis. Maar laten we de schrijvers nu zelf aan het woord, allereerst over de sociaal-economische situatie vanaf 1845.
Direct na aankomst in Den Haag op 14 augustus 1845 schreef Davezac aan Secretary of State Buchanan: The situation of this kingdom is far from prosperous. The taxes are heavy, almost beyond endurance and bear on every article as to such pressure, that nearly one third | |
[pagina 397]
| |
of the population of the large cities receive their dayly food (potatoes only) from the less burthened portion of those communitiesGa naar voetnoot8.. Op 16 september 1845 vervolgde hij: The almost total failure of the potatoe crop and the diminished produce of the corn harvest of this year in this Kingdom has induced this government in order to alleviate the distress, which those calamities have already caused among the indigent classes, forming here no less than the 5th of the population, to take a measure similar to that which Belgium had recently adopted for the same motiveGa naar voetnoot9.. Op 26 september wijdde hij verder uit over de gevolgen van de aardappelziekte: The sudden rise of the prices of all sorts of grain (bread-stuff) and particularly that of potatoes, which rose in less than three days from three to nine florins, has caused tumultuous gatherings of working men in several of the larger cities in this kingdom. Even The Hague has not been exempt from the alarm caused by the unwanted manifestation of popular discontent. Energetic and prompt measures, however, have guided the public mind both here and in the other places, where the like scenes have occurred. Een jaar later op 31 dec. 1846 schreef Charles Nichols aan Secretary of State Buchanan over de Nederlandse handelsgeest: The general timidity of the merchants will operate as a hindrance to any very extensive business. They have immense capital and seem resolved not to part with it unless upon safe loans, where they may realize a large interestGa naar voetnoot11.. Deze opmerking sloeg in de eerste plaats op de weinig florissante Nederlandse handel op Amerika. In tegenstelling tot Amerikaanse zakenlieden waren Nederlandse kooplieden niet geneigd veel risico te nemen. Langs gebaande wegen zochten zij een zekere winst. De politieke hemel was bewolkt en de economische vooruit- | |
[pagina 398]
| |
zichten leken bijzonder somber. Pas toen de politieke hemel in 1848 opgeklaard was en de internationale economische constellatie betere vooruitzichten bood, lieten Nederlandse kapitalisten hun terughoudendheid varen. Naar mijn mening moet het antwoord op het zogenaamde vraagstuk van de economische stagnatie in de eerste helft van de negentiende eeuw dan ook gezocht worden in een wisselwerking tussen de internationale economische constellatie, de politieke situatie en de mentaliteitGa naar voetnoot12.. Nederlands positie als kleine koloniale mogendheid was weliswaar uniek, maar overigens dringt zich een vergelijking met andere kleine Europese staten met name Denemarken op, welks afhankelijkheid van de Duitse en Engelse markt eveneens doorslaggevend was voor de economische ontwikkelingGa naar voetnoot13.. Op 20 juli 1847 voorzag Davezac de ordeverstoringen in Friesland en de reactie van de overheid van typerend commentaar: The disturbances which had taken place in Friesland, caused by the scarsity of food, have been promptly repressed, as is usual in Europe, not by removing the cause, but by military force. The new crop of potatoes, that has come to market, as yet uninjured by the malady of the former years, has quieted the public mind, as regards the fears of another season of scarcityGa naar voetnoot14.. Aan de vooravond van de grondwetsherziening, op 7 maart 1848, gaf Davezac als zijn indruk te kennen: I see no reason to think that the public tranquility will be in the least disturbed in the Kingdom. The States-General meet today, and the people appear unanimous in the expectation that the alterations in the fundamental law to be submitted to that body will be satisfactory. Commerce, however, has received a heavy blow. Some of the first houses in Amsterdam are shakenGa naar voetnoot15.. Weinig kon hij vermoeden, dat de volgende twee weken zijn indruk zouden logenstraffen. Aan de grondwetsherziening wijdden zowel Davezac als Nichols uitvoerige rapporten. De gebeurtenissen zijn in grote lijnen wel bekend uit de publicaties van Colenbrander, Robijns en GieleGa naar voetnoot16.. Enkele facetten van Davezac's verslag van 21 maart 1848 trekken de aandacht: de vreugdeuitingen van de burgerij in Den Haag, Ams- | |
[pagina 399]
| |
terdam en Rotterdam en vooral de Haagse werklieden manifestaties naar aanleiding van de ommezwaai van koning Willem II en de ontslagaanvrage door de ministers. Deze demonstraties van ‘proletariërs’ op 15 en 16 maart werden door hem beschreven deels als aanhankelijkheidsbetuiging van Oranjegezinde werklieden, deels als pressiemiddel van radicale democraten als Adriaan van Bevervoorde om op de ingeslagen weg voort te gaan. Nichols legde in zijn verslagen van 3 april en 3 juli 1848 de klemtoon op de economische aspecten van de gebeurtenissen. Het Dam-oproer van 24 maart 1848 doet hij terecht af als baldadigheid zonder gevaar voor de gevestigde orde. Hetgeen hij niet met zoveel woorden vermeldt, is dat deze baldadigheid de climax vormde van een door politieke agitatie toegespitste sociaal-economische onvrede. Duitse communistische ambachtslieden hadden in overleg met Nederlandse radicale democraten tot de Dam-demonstratie opgeroepen, maar zij zagen geen kans of deinsden er voor terug de op een rel beluste Amsterdamse menigte tot politieke daden te brengen. Zo bleef het revolutieschot, dat op de Dam had moeten weerklinken, een losse flodderGa naar voetnoot17.. Als het een vergelijking tussen Europa en Amerika betrof, ging Nichols een retorische ontboezeming niet uit de weg. Nichols geloofde in de Amerikaanse droom, in Amerika's ‘Manifest Destiny’, in het voorbeeldige van de Amerikaanse verworvenheden. Uit zijn brief van 3 juli 1848 leest men de rechtvaardiging van het Amerikaanse imperialisme. Wanneer men Nichols' gegronde beschouwingen over de toestand van Europa en Nederland beziet, kan men hem echter geen ongelijk geven, dat hij zijn land gelukkig prees. Helaas bleef een ‘Golden Age’ ook na 1848 zowel voor Europa als Amerika steeds in het verschiet. Secretary of State James Buchanan waardeerde de rapporten van Nichols en Davezac. Aan de laatste schreef hij 23 juni 1848: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your despatches to no. 41, inclusive, and to thank you for keeping the department adviced of the progress of events in Holland at this interesting period of European commotionGa naar voetnoot18.. Dit is nu juist ook de kwintessens van deze bronnen voor ons. De brieven geven een aardig beeld van de gebeurtenissen rond 1848 en de achterliggende factoren. Tevens zijn hier Amerikanen aan het woord, die bij het kijken in de Nederlandse spiegel hun Amerikaanse mentaliteit bloot geven. De drie rapporten, voorzover betrekking hebbend op Nederland of Europa in het algemeen, volgen hier in extenso voorzien van enige verklarende annotatie. | |
[pagina 400]
| |
Legation of the United States of America to the Netherlands The Haque, March 21st 1848Ga naar voetnoot19.Sir, The sanguine expectations entertained by the people, as I stated to you in my last despatch, having been signally disappointed by the 27 projects of law for amending the Constitution which you will find in the Journal de la Haye of the 11th of March, enclosed, the public mind became so much excited, that the King, fearful of the consequences likely to arrise out of the general irritation, summoned on the 13th of March to the palace the president of the 2d Chamber and charged him to make known to the assembly he presides, that desirous to comply with the reasonable wishes of his faithful people he was disposed to make all changes, which the States-General and himself would agree in considering as necessary to the wellfare of the state, independently of the 27 projects of law, already presented by his ministers in compliance with the royal promess made in October last, which projects embraced only the alterations proposed in 1845 by the majority of the 2d Chamber. On the following day the ministers not having been adviced with in regard to the verbal message sent to the 2d Chamber by their president, requested His Majesty to accept the resignations, which they thought it their duty under the existing circumstances to render to him. Their resignation having been accepted they only hold office until a new cabinet shall have been formed. The enclosed Journal de la Haye of the 16th of March notices these events. As soon as it was known, that the ministers had retired, the liveliest satisfaction was manifested, here, and in Amsterdam. At Rotterdam, all the ships hoisted their flags halfmast. The clubs and many private houses were illuminated in manifestation of the popular joy. Here, in the night of the 15th instant, the people assembled in groups in various parts of the city. These all joined in the public walk, called the ‘Voorhout’. Many bore lighted torches and flags. The column having formed, after marching along the principal streets, united in a dense mass opposite the royal palace. There, the people cheered loudly: ‘leve de Koning! leve Willem II! Oranje boven’! The King descended in the crowd and there heard many of the working people express their attachment to him. One working man told him: ‘we love thee; thou art our own Willem; but thy ministers we dislike, send them away and van Doorn too’ (the vice-president of the Council of State)Ga naar voetnoot20.. | |
[pagina 401]
| |
This crowd reminded me of our own popular meetings: men, women and children were all mixed togetherGa naar voetnoot21.. What attracted most attention was the editor of a satyrical newspaper (often prosecuted for libellous attacks on the King and his ministers), borne on the shoulders of some sturdy working menGa naar voetnoot22.. The pageant left the palace and rehursed the scene both in front of the Prince of Orange's and Prince Frederik's palaces. The Princess of Orange, a beautiful and talented woman, was loudly cheered. It was near midnight before the crowd dispersed. The most perfect order was maintained; and at one o'clock in the morning the city was as quiet as usual. On the 16th an other popular manifestation took place, far more numerous, but as orderly as that of the previous night. Opinion varies as to the number of people assembled on that last occasion, but accustomed as I am to calculate the number of individuals assembled by measuring the ground they occupy, I am certain that I do not err in saying, that they were at least eight thousand people before the Kings palace, when the King came down again to commune with the proletairians, (as they call them in Europe.) On this occasion, as on that of the first manifestation, the same editor, the presiding spirit (or demon, as many here say) of the pageant, was seen sitting on the shoulders of his bearersGa naar voetnoot23.. The 2d Chamber, awakened at last from their torpor to a clearer view of the situation of things and made aware of the exigencies of popular opinion, hastened in compliance with the King's message transmitted to them by their president, to lay before the King under the title of ‘A report of the section of the 2d Chamber of the States-General’, the document which you will find in the Journal de la Haye of the 18th of March, enclosed. But events had gone far ahead of the concessions made to the people by that report of the 2d Chamber. The popular manifestation both here and at Amsterdam having convinced the King that the general popular excitement required immediate measures of reforme, he issued on the 17th (the same day that the report was presented to him), a decree nominating Messieurs Donker Curtius, Kempenaer, Luzac, Storm and Thorbecke, to form a board having for its mandate to prepare the project of an other fundamental law and at the same time to advise him as to the formation of a new | |
[pagina 402]
| |
cabinet. This decree is contained in the Journal de la Haye of the 19th instant enclosed. The satisfaction produced by the publication of that decree would have led to a popular manifestation, far surpassing the former ones, but that on the very night (18th of March) when it was to have taken place, news was received of the death of His Royal Highness, Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, at the island Madeira. Public sympathies with parental grief caused the adjournment of all rejoicings. No public act has occured since the 18th, except the appointment of Mr. Dirk Donker Curtius, as minister of justice ad interim (see the Journal de la Haye of the 20-21 March enclosed), an appointment that indicates a total change of policy, if as I believe, the King is sincere in the line he has pursued within these few days. I speak hypothetically, because there are incredulous persons who still believe, that he wishes the measures to be proposed by the constituting board, to be rejected by the oligarchic majority of the 2d Chamber. If the last should be his real intention, events may occur of the gravest import... I have the honor Sir to be with great respect, your very humble and most obedient Auguste Davezac to: James Buchanan, Esq. Secretary of State of the United States of America P.S.: Mr. Donker Curtius is the most advanced person in liberal politics in the kingdom. His colleagues of the board are all liberal, but of a lighter shade...Ga naar voetnoot24.. | |
U.S. ConsulateAmsterdam, april 3rd 1848Ga naar voetnoot25. To the Hon: James Buchanan, Dear Sir, Allow me the honor of continuing the details of the past events growing out of the overthrow of the French monarchy. Since my last advice this extraordinary event has led to such rising of the people in almost every kingdom, to such reforms, to such concessions from the governments, as to have created in the breast of everyone perfect amazement. Business continues to be paralized and unusual distrust prevails. Stocks and public securities continued to fall and have in their great declension ruined hundreds. Some idea may be formed of the panic which prevails by the following quotation of the leading stocks. The Russian loans fell from 10%, which was their value prior to these troubles to 79% percent. The Dutch 4% percents to 54% percent, 2½% to 37½ percents, Austrian 2½% percents to 24% percents. The same state of things exists | |
[pagina 403]
| |
at all the leading bourses of the continent. In fine there is a perfect collapse in financial and monetary affairs and this is hourly affecting a greater revolution in the political and social condition of the ‘body politic’, than could be accomplished by the sword and bajonet. The King of the Netherlands became alarmed, and beiyng informed the people were dissatisfied and wished a reform immediately proclaimed, he would grant everything that was desired of him. Accordingly a commission was appointed to revise the constitution and make the necessary changes to secure peace and tranquility to the kingdom. The ministery resigned and a new one was formed with Count G. Graaf Schimmelpenninck as prime minister and at head of the coloniesGa naar voetnoot26. and foreign affaires. The Count is regarded as one of the first statesmen in the kingdom and unites talents with experience, and is possessed of liberal views and has popular manners. This said, he is the very statesman for the crisis. The public express confidence in him and his associates. Thus the present is by all regarded as an auspicious moment to form commercial relations in harmony with the spirit of the times, and to effect an abolition of those exactions which have proved a great burthen to foreign shipping. On the 25th ultimoGa naar voetnoot27. it had been announced there would be a general rising of the populace against the constituted authorities. The stores were closed and all business was suspended. The mob assembled, plundered several houses, broke many windows including the burgemeester's. Order and tranquility were however in a few hours restored through the interference of the military. The rioters seem to have had no other object than mischief. But such is the general sense of respect and duty of obedience to the government, that no further disorder is contemplated. Neither is it expected, the revolutions of surrounding states can disturb the public peace. But on the contrary, should the new ministry be sustained in its policy (which all believe it will) Holland in few years will regain much of its former power and influence and rise to commercial importance...Ga naar voetnoot28.. I have the honor to remain your faithful and obedient servant, Charles Nichols' | |
[pagina 404]
| |
Consulate of the UnitedStates of America Amsterdam, July 3rd 1848Ga naar voetnoot29. To the Hon. James Buchanan, Dear Sir, The honor of adressing you at this time is embraced with pleasure to give some account of Dutch affairs and a brief notice of passing events. The navy of Holland is said to consist of one hundred and seventy one ships of war, including vessels of all descriptions composing it; sixty one of which are in commission. This number of armed ships strongly indicates the national character, its commercial enterprise and naval strengh. The German Diet made overtures to the Dutch government to join the federationGa naar voetnoot30.. The proposition was rejected being resolved to adhere to its long established policy to form no alliances, but maintain a strict neutrality. At the Hague, Amsterdam and Rotterdam the royalists unite and oppose most of the required reforms. They appear to be riveted to monarchical and aristocratic institutions. Any reform confering upon the people greater privileges or power, is regarded little short of treason. The King is therefor obliged to be influenced by such high toned and overbearing counsels. Left to his own inclinations it is believed he would conform to the spirit of the times. As this would not be yielded by the clique which surrounds the throne, Count Schimmelpenninck and the minister of war considered themselves, obliged to resign as the other members of the cabinet refused to accede to their views. This disagreement however increased to such an extent that the remaining ministers were soon constrained to follow the exemple of their late colleaguesGa naar voetnoot31.. In consequence of this state of affaires the King has been thrown into embarrasments and has been unable to fill all the seats of his cabinet to this day. (The above events occurred about four weeks since). The extraordinary revolutions on the continent are increasing and are dayly becoming more disastrous and alarming to the supporters of despotism. But through what fearful scenes of blood and damage, or popular commotion, Europe is yet destined to pass before she acquires her independence no one can foresee, or even imagine. At present all may be likened to the swells and agitation of the ocean after a terrific gale. While everywhere we behold a general paralysis in commerce, in | |
[pagina 405]
| |
all trades and professions - loss of confidence - dissatisfaction on account of the oppressive taxation and unequal laws - a fixed resolve to put down the ‘Noblesse’ and to improve and elevate the condition of the lower orders. Hence the extraordinary depression in the funds and public securities. And as these have constituted the sources of income, they have been chiefly resorted to for investment, while multitudes have made it a profession to speculate in them. When therefor they declined some 15 or 25 percent with unsteadiness at that, nothing could prevent general distress and ruin, which now prevail more or less throughout the continent. Amid this overthrow of kings, nobility and gentry, and it may be added the general depreciation of property, there is soon to disappear the remains of the feudal system with its onerous and obnoxious burthing and institutions. New social and political relations are formed imbued with the spirit of liberty and equality, and adapted to the happiness of the people. Thus have commenced they say, those mighty changes which through the influence of our democratic institutions are to diffuse far and wide the principles of true republicanism and introduce to now suffering and bleeding Europe the ‘Golden Age’ so much desired by the Ancients and harmonizing with the spirit of our happy republic...Ga naar voetnoot32.. In this gloomy state of European affairs and the deep darkness of the future it is consoling to find our country so prosperous and happy. I witness such profound respect for our government and free institutions, and also for our character, with great admiration for our extra-ordinary military talent and prowess, as exemplified in the Mexican war. Repudiation is forgotten, and since all the states pay or are preparing to pay their interest, and Louisiana commences on the 1st of August, having satisfactorily secured the bondholders, we are pronounced an honest people and acknowledged worthy of confidenceGa naar voetnoot33.. Our country with its republican form of government and equal laws, is regarded the only one where money can now be invested with safety, or where the people have virtue and intelligence to govern themselvesGa naar voetnoot34.. I have the honor to remain, Your faithful and obedient servant, Charles Nichols |
|