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The Modern Devotion (1968)

The Modern Devotion

(1968)–R.R. Post–rechtenstatus Auteursrechtelijk beschermd

Confrontation with Reformation and Humanism


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H. The Man of Learning

Groote was a well educated person, even a man of learning, extremely well read in the Holy Scriptures and in the writings of the Fathers, also in the classics and various medieval mystics, lawyers, theologians and philosophers. We shall give details of all this presently. Thirteen years of study in Paris bore fruit, despite the worldly life to which he and others have testified. The former Paris professor, Salvarvilla, enumerates Groote's branches of study as follows: scientiae liberales, naturales and morales and also theologia and jus canonicum.1 These terms, which must have been clear to the initiated, were indicated somewhat more briefly by Groote himself: scientiae liberales, theology and law.2 Both mean study in the faculties of Arts, theology and law. The Arts faculty comprised the seven liberal arts, but also natural and moral philosophy (i.e. physics and ethics). After the degree of Master of Arts (Magister Artium), began the study in the higher faculties: theology, law and medicine. Geert Groote combined theology and Canon law. After gaining his Master's degree in the preparatory faculty he continued to study for another eight years. It may be that he dabbled too much in both faculties, and thus was not able to take certain examinations. To judge from his letters he knew a good deal of theology, but his real subject was law, probably Canon law.3 He was trained as a lawyer and remained a lawyer all his life. He was completely at home in the law and in legal commentaries and moreover approached most questions from a juridical point of view, even crucial ones like the problem of the focarists. We shall see evidence of this later. He was thus appointed a student of law in 1365.4)

Groote's interest in learning is principally evident from his unquenchable desire for books, not only ascetic works but also theological tomes by which he could enrich his preaching and document his own works. He himself says that he studied not only the Bible, but also the Fathers - Ambrose, Augustine, Gregory, Jerome, Chrysostom, Dionysius and also the later writers like Isidore, Bede, Bernard, Hugo and Richard of St. Victor.5 The letters and works, however, show

quotations from very many others - Aristotle, Seneca, Plato, Cicero, from theologians like Thomas Aquinas, Henry of Ghent, whom he calls doctor solemnis, and Duns Scotus magnus in theologia.1 In all the struggles in which he was engaged, in his constant pastoral care and many worries he remained the scholar, the thirster after knowledge and collector of books. Several of his letters deal with the copying of books, which he wishes to possess himself in order to study and utilize in his apostolate. This desire for books is evident from the beginning of his preaching right up to his death. Several of his friends shared this longing and helped him and each other to fulfil their wishes. This perpetual activity to multiply books is illustrative of the medieval situation which preceded the invention of printing.

Groote was convinced that, in comparison with other servants of God, he was dull and useless to others. He already wrote as much to Herman Lippe, Canon of St. Severinus in Cologne in 13742 and repeated it in 1381 in a letter to Ruusbroec or his canons. He calls himself garrulous and always and ever desirous for books (avarus et peravarus librorum), as Ruusbroec well knew. He considered this a failing. He was obliged from henceforward to be more moderate in his collection of books, he writes, or to stop altogether, both because the money was running out and because he began to find it irritating to deal with copyists and everything else pertaining to this matter.3 Whether failing or virtue, his desire for books was in any case one of his most charateristic traits. Even if the money seems to be running out in 1381 he continued until his death to negotiate with copyists concerning writing and payment.

He personally employed one or more writers. One of these was Gerlach, whom he esteemed very highly. Gerlach's writing was extremely useful and he worked continually.4 Groote was very upset when this Gerlach decamped with a sum of money and, it appears, something belonging to Gerard Haermaker, presumably one of his colleagues. He also took Groote's model books (for copying from) and his parchment. Groote did his utmost to persuade Gerlach to return. He would be even more kindly disposed towards him and Gerlach must not mind his colleagues and their talk.5 These colleagues

of Gerlach must, like Gerard Haermaker, have also been scribes employed by Groote. He had five writers in the spring of 1384 (according to Mulder 1383): habeo de presenti quinque scribentes, he wrote on the 5th of April 1384 to John van de Gronde in Amsterdam.1

Were these writers also the first Brethren of the Common Life, as suggested by John Busch?2 A few of the brothers may have been recruited from their ranks, but Groote's letters provide no evidence of this. They rather give the impression that these writers worked for Groote for a salary, in order to earn their living.

There were also others, besides these salaried copyists of Groote's principally John van de Gronde in Amsterdam, later one of the Brethren, William Vroede, school rector in Deventer, and John Cele, rector in Zwolle, who wrote themselves but also farmed out work.

Groote's correspondence with William Vroede is confined to the year 1381.3 This man, who at this time had been rector in Deventer for three years and wished to enter a monastery, was a person after Groote's own heart. He really would have preferred to retain him for active life in the world. It was he who found copyists for Groote and with whom Groote discussed, both orally and in writing, which books he wanted. A book dealing with the dissension between clergy and people need not be copied for the present. Groote wanted to see the book first and also ask the opinion of scholars. But he thanks Vroede for the Glossa Senece. He especially desires original works, and lists what he has in mind: all the books of Ambrose and Isidore, four of John Damascenus; the letters of Augustine, Gregory and Jerome, various books of Augustine. Of Augustine he possessed only: Super Genesim contra Manicheos. Have a few of these copied, he wrote to Vroede, and I for my part shall have something copied for you. I have given Gerlach 28 quaternions on which he will begin as soon as he has finished your book De profectibus. See to it that he writes as quickly as possible.4 Vroede then put various questions to Groote, in writing, some of them concerning the copying of books. Groote answered thus:5 I have not got Augustine's letter Ad Julianum comitem. I have only a few of the letters or of the sermons resembling letters of Augustine. I lent out a book containing many but not all of the letters. It is now being copied

by John van de Gronde in Amsterdam. I do not know whether it contains the letter you want. In any case, they are given better in Decretis XXV di. c. ‘Unum’ ... I have a book of Augustine's sermons of which I have read only half; but I lent it to someone outside Deventer. I do not know if it includes the homily quoted, for special treatises of Augustine, such as the treatise De penitentiae and others, are often called sermons or books.

The well known rector of Zwolle, John Cele, also wrote for Groote or had books copied for him. In Groote's opinion Cele was too slow and kept the borrowed models for too long. Groote pointed this out to him, but did his utmost not to offend this man, who was his friend.

To the letter in which he adjured him not to enter a Franciscan monastery he added a note concerning the bags with books. ‘Send back the quaternions of the books which I sent you to copy and which you have already copied.’1 And soon afterwards: ‘I am shortly coming to Kampen. Do not delay, I beg you, coming there with all the books of mine you have, and also the two which the priest Peter was to send me, or at least send them to me. Bring your travelling bag with you, for you will not be able to take mine back. I should like you to come on Wednesday; come or send as quickly as possible before Saturday. Bring with you the quaternions or the beginnings of the books you have begun.’2 Cele may have brought many of the books back, but to judge from Groote's 13th letter he is not yet satisfied.3 Learning and books were necessary for the edification of the faithful. Groote now proposes to Cele a lex, a rule to be voluntarily kept by them both and which is not all too clear for an outsider. It seems to amount to this, that neither of them is obliged to copy a book for the other, if this does not fit in with his work programme, with the sole exception that both must work as quickly as possible if this should be required by the general interest, by which Groote understands the benefit of the Church. Groote gives a few examples to show what he means. One of his aims in proposing such a rule seems to have been to ensure that Cele sent back the borrowed models in time. In the examples he took the opportunity of pointing out certain obligations to Cele, usually in the form of reciprocity. Cele must not only hasten and send back the borrowed models, but also lend his own books to be copied, in order to contribute to the production.4

After a long introduction his whole purpose is suddenly revealed. ‘Friend, I am uneasy in my mind and ashamed that we keep the books

from Amsterdam too long. There is no book in the world that I should wish to acquire in this way. I am grieved; I should like to return everything, as is proper, and yet I have kept for more than a year a book of sermons belonging to a person whom we do not know and with whom we are not linked in particular friendship. If I had lost my own sermons it would be a small matter, but it lies heavily on my conscience that I have kept another's property so long. If only they (the sermons) had never come, if only you had never had my model to start copying. I should not like to send another person's book from Kampen to someone I do not know. I should be more worried about that one little book, than about all my own books, if I had sent them. So send it in any case, or bring it to Kampen. I am sending you the material and the Summa parva and Ethica. Besides a number of books you also have in your possession a few quaternions of the Meteorum et Ethicorum and perhaps others as well.’ He ends with an exhortation to keep the rule.1

The non-return of the books of sermons he had obtained from Amsterdam weighed heavily on Groote's mind, and when the priest Gijsbert Dou asked for them again, Groote turned once more to Cele.2

Another time, when Groote wrote to Cele on these matters, he ended his letter thus: ‘Send me parchment, if you have received any. I should like to know the name of the parchment maker. Friend, I pay you well for copying although you scarcely reward me with your illegible and misshapen writing.’3

Shortly after this Groote wrote Cele a short note which deals entirely with letters. A self-accusation served as introduction to what follows: ‘I am keeping the book Sapientis et providi (it is not certain what book he is here referring to) longer than is proper. If a book has been begun it must be completed, if it is to be ready between now and the octave of Whitsun. Let no one begin now on a new book. Send the book back around the octave day already mentioned. I shall most likely have writers here. I shall relieve you for the present, reserving your writing for another time. Will you please send me as well whatever money is over from the two old scilts for I need money. I am, thank God, nearly depleted. Besides, I have here in Deventer a fitting and suitable market. My conscience does not wish to grieve the man whose book it is. I am sending you Supra primum psalmum of the seven (penitential) psalms, but do copy it, for it earns his bread. After writing this letter I re-

membered that the seven psalms have already been returned. I am sending them to you. Send them back quickly. Tell the priest Martin to send the Orologium back.’1 Shortly before his death on July 5th 1384 Groote wrote again to Cele: ‘I have commissioned two brothers from Zwolle to copy what I preached in Utrecht, at your expense. Further I ask you if you will have a book copied for us, one of those sent by the people in Kampen, in whatever script you like, so long as we get it.’ Groote is in full fettle. He also mentions: ‘Florens Radewijns will send you something so that you may translate something from my writings into Dutch, whatever seems to you useful for our frater John (van de Gronde) and his brothers (Brethren of the Common Life in Deventer). Let them speak courageously concerning the notorii fornicatores, according to the example of the document.’2

The third person with whom Groote repeatedly corresponded about books was the priest John van de Gronde. He was not a school rector but a pastor in Amsterdam, working with Gijsbert Dou and William Oude Scutte. Groote finally managed to have John van de Gronde called to Deventer to assist Florens Radewijn as spiritual leader of the Devotionalists (1384). He succeeded Groote as leader of the sisters in the Master Geerts house. He may be accounted as one of the first Brethren of the Common Life who, with Groote, held the possessions including the house in Zwolle, in his name as joint property.3

About the summer of 1381 Groote replied to a letter from John van de Gronde who had submitted to him a problem dealing with pastoral care, and had requested various books to be copied.4 Groote began by saying ‘I love you, because you love books (biblia). If I remember rightly you still have a book on the guidance of persons who remain obdurate and show no repentance or of whom men despair. Have it copied.’ After dealing with the question of pastoral care which van de Gronde had put to him (ars artium est regimen animarum), he finally returns to the books. ‘I have written that which really could not be written. I do not see how you can obtain a good copy through me. But in any case, send back a copy of this letter, written on two folios, so that it can be placed in a book. Yesterday I received the consignment from John of Frankfort. Someone in Zutphen whose life of Jerome is being copied for me, has the Vitae patrum. I dare not demand my

books back before I have returned what I have borrowed. As soon as this is done you shall have what you asked for. I recently began writing the Nijmegen letter and in the writing it grew into a book, written in small script, but not yet in easily readable letters.’1 At about the same time Groote wrote to William Vroede that he had lent a book containing many of Augustine's sermons to brother John van de Gronde in Amsterdam, to be copied.2 This continued for a time but finally, on 27th December 1383, Groote requested John van de Gronde to come to Deventer. In this letter too, he cannot prevent himself from talking about books. It was in the days of his wretchedness and humiliation. ‘I shall send various books to Hugo (Goldsmit) of Haarlem (like this Amsterdam priest a kindred spirit of Groote's). I should be glad if master William (Oude Scutte) would have something copied for him from one or two volumes, if we need them.’3 In the following year (5th April 1384) Groote repeats his request that John van de Gronde should go to Deventer, and once again discusses books. ‘I have received the books which you wrote. The friends in Kampen have the last section of Ruusbroec's Van den gheestelijken Tabernakel. They are going to copy it and when I get it back I shall send it to William Oude Scutte in Amsterdam. I do not remember ever having written anything about the Curiositate vestium. I am returning the volume of the Passionale. Send me one and a half écus worth of parchment from your supply and be sure not to delay. If you have none left, get it from master William (Oude Scutte) or Gijsbert (Dou). I have five writers at the moment, and they are busy on Augustine's Super Johannes and Bede's Super Marcum. I am afraid I shall not have enough parchment until the new supply comes for which I sent four scilts to Gijsbert.’ Shortly after this (before July 28th 1384) Groote sent John van de Gronde the Sententiae of Peter Lombard, for which, ‘according to my records, I have paid from the sum reserved for the purchase of books, three francs, eight solidi, counting the franc as 13 solidi and the old scilt of France as 19 solidi. Will you give the money to Gijsbert (Dou) for the parchment and certain other things.’4

According to all this data, writing was being done for Groote and his friends in Deventer, Zutphen, Kampen, Zwolle and Amsterdam.

It was not all, however, intended for Groote. He himself wrote too and had things written for his friends. It was a continual exchange. If anyone wanted a particular book, he wrote to a friend to see if he could get hold of it and if so, if he could have it copied. The availability of models was no less important than the actual copying. In addition, money had to be found to pay the copyists and to buy parchment. Other people too were implicated in this business of lending and copying, notably the monastery libraries like those of Monnikhuizen and Groenendaal. In the 12th letter (12th February 1380)1 Groote wrote to a monk of Monnikhuizen or Geertruidenberg, or more probably Eemsteyn, to send him the remaining part of the Moralia of Gregory the Great, written on paper, and the Vitae Patrum of ‘which I lack one of the four parts,’ and also the Super Regum of Nicolas de Lyra (± 1340). ‘I hope to return them soon. When he (i.e. Groote's secretary Henry) comes back, let him bring with him one of my books which the procurator has, and another which brother John (a cleric) borrowed, and one of Jerome and also all the quaternions in Mr. Andreas' possession. Be so good as to help him to reach Zutphen safely (by way of Nijmegen or in another manner). Put my books in one of your bags intended for me. You have bags enough and I have too few. It must not be too big, but strong. I shall need it on my next journey, around Easter.’ As regards the books from Groenendaal, Groote is implicated in the publication of Ruusbroec's books. He has already passed on the first volume De XII Baguttis but he dare not publish the second volume. He advises moreover against publishing Ruusbroec's second book De Gradibus (1381).2 Later, in 1384, (or 1383) Groote urgently requested the Brethren of Groenendaal to allow him to give to Mr. B one of their large volumes of St. Augustine, which he has asked for in Groote's name, in order to copy something. ‘The man is strong, and will keep your book well. But if you should suffer some inconvenience, I promise you that I will more than recompense you. And if you wish to copy any books of ours, we will send them to you, just as you send us the books we desire.’3

Even in Prague John Chrysostom's commentary on Matthew was copied for him. Vroede could copy the so-called Originalia,4 which were there.

The letters assume that the writers were paid. Groote, Cele, Vroede and van de Gronde also did some copying themselves, but it is clear that they usually farmed out the work or had it done at home under

their supervision. There is frequent mention of payment, and the work facere, to have written is constantly employed. For this reason, these salaried professional writers can scarcely be considered as scholars, or as the first Brothers with whom Florens Radewijns inaugurated the Brethren of the Common Life, as recounted by John Busch 80 years after the foundation of the Brotherhood. In the house of Zwolle the brothers have done some copying, at the end of Groote's life.1

Although various books are mentioned, we really know very little about what was copied. Only incidental information has come down to us, which for the rest, clearly outlines the work, the difficulties and the general appreciation of books. However, those books which are mentioned as due to be copied, lent out or desired, characterize plainly enough the attitude of mind of Groote and his kindred spirits. Most of them are the works of the great Church Fathers, with the Gospel commentaries taking preference. For example, John Chrysostom's Super Mattheum (page 5) Augustine's Super Genesis (page 16); Super Evangelium Johannis (page 16). They also read the general works of these authors: Libri Ambrosii, Augustine, Gregory's Moralia (page 41) and Pastorales (page 101) and the letters, (Registerum Gregorii) (page 16); also the letters of Augustine (page 18). Then there were the ascetic works like Vitae Patrum, Vita Hieronymi (page 106). Of the medieval authors they read also the ascetic and mystical writings like the Horologium of Suso (page 15) and the Profectus Monachorum of David of Augsburg (page 16), but for the rest very few medieval works. A Summa is indeed mentioned on page 43 and on page 44 a Summa Parva, but Groote seems to have had little interest in the dogmatic works of the great scholastics, although he does quote Thomas Aquinas. He may have already acquired these in his student period or earlier, as he did the Decretum and Decretales with the numerous glosses. He repeatedly quotes from these works and is completely familiar with them, but there is no indication that he ever had them copied during his ‘public life’ as he did the book Super Regum by the medieval exegete Nicolas of Lyra (page 41). He did not possess Augustine's book ‘De Igne Purgatorii’ (page 17). He was also fond of sermons. Of the classics he possessed or acquired the Ethica and Meteorum Aristotelis and the Glossa Senecae.

It is a meagre list. If we should enumerate only the works Groote read, this would give an entirely different impression of his scholarship.

To compile a complete list of quotations would lead me too far from my original argument. I shall content myself with reproducing the works listed on the first fifty pages of the edition of the letters.

Old Testament: Gen. (pp. 7, 25, 49); Exodus (pp. 8, 10, 37); Psalms (pp. 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 18, 27, 39, 42, 48, 50); Song of Sol. (p. 6); Isaiah (pp. 23, 24, 28, 42); Jeremiah (p. 23); Ezekiel (p. 36); Hosea (or Joel?) (p. 6); Micah (pp. 26, 42);

New Testament: Matthew (pp. 24, 25, 28, 31); Mark (pp. 28, 31); Luke (pp. 2, 5, 28, 31); John (p. 3); The Acts (p. 27); Paul, Romans (pp. 2, 25, 31); 1 Cor. (pp. 3, 7, 9, 24, 27, 42); 2 Cor. (p. 40); Gal. (pp. 6, 8, 30); Eph. (pp. 3, 8, 42, 43); Phil. (pp. 3, 37, 50); Col. (p. 28); Tim. (pp. 28, 59); Heb. (p. 37); Jas. (p. 5); 2 Pet. (p. 27); 1 John (p. 50); Jude (p. 27);

Other writers: Valerius (p. 28); Seneca (pp. 18, 26, 29, 34); Livy (p. 26); Cicero (pp. 26, 30); Aristotle (pp. 29, 33, 42); Stoics (p. 34); Gregory I (p. 23); Augustine (pp. 18, 21, 28); Bernard (p. 18); Law books (pp. 5, 18); Glossators (pp. 18, 19).


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